A Brief History of Cartomancy

A Brief History of Cartomancy: Playing Cards and Tarot

Cartomancy, the art of using cards as a means of divination, has a long and intricate history that weaves together gaming, art, and mysticism. At its heart lies the belief that cards can act as mirrors of the human condition, revealing hidden truths and offering guidance in moments of uncertainty. From its humble beginnings as a pastime with simple playing cards to the richly symbolic world of tarot, cartomancy has evolved in tandem with the cultures that shaped it, reflecting the societal, spiritual, and psychological currents of each era.

Though cartomancy is most commonly associated with tarot today, its origins lie in the more universal tradition of playing cards, which were used for games and fortune-telling long before tarot gained esoteric significance. Over time, playing cards and tarot diverged, each developing unique systems of interpretation and spiritual association.

Playing cards, with their four suits and numerical ranks, became tools for divination by linking their everyday symbolism to broader human experiences—love, money, work, and challenges. Tarot, on the other hand, offered a deeper symbolic framework with its Major and Minor Arcana, each card laden with archetypes, cosmic connections, and mythic resonance. Together, they form the twin pillars of cartomancy, each appealing to different traditions and approaches within the world of divination.

The history of cartomancy is not merely a story of how people read cards; it is a reflection of how societies have sought meaning through symbols. From medieval courts to modern living rooms, cards have served as tools for navigating the unknown, fostering a connection between the mundane and the mystical. In tracing this history, we uncover not only the evolution of a practice but also a window into the human desire to understand the forces that shape our lives.

The Origins of Playing Cards

The history of playing cards is a fascinating journey across cultures, trade routes, and centuries. They are believed to have originated in China during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) as a blend of entertainment and symbolic representation. The earliest references to playing cards in China describe them as “leaf games” (yezi xi), which were small, paper-based tools used for gambling and storytelling. These proto-playing cards were often inscribed with suits or symbols, many of which were precursors to modern designs.

Chinese Origins

The oldest surviving records of playing cards come from the Tang and Song Dynasties, with references to decks like the “money-suited cards” (ma diao pai), used in games that mirrored financial transactions. These decks contained four suits—coins, strings of coins, myriads, and tens of myriads—each tied to economic hierarchies of the time. Early games involved combinations of numerical values, similar to modern trick-taking card games.

Cards from this era were not merely recreational objects; they also had symbolic and literary significance. Some decks featured poetic verses, historical anecdotes, or characters from Chinese classics, turning card games into a blend of strategy, art, and education.

The Spread of Playing Cards Along Trade Routes

From China, playing cards spread westward, carried by merchants and travellers along the Silk Road. By the 12th or 13th century, they had reached Persia and India, where they underwent significant adaptations. Persian Ganjifa cards, for example, featured elaborate hand-painted designs and were often circular rather than rectangular. These cards were used in games and had distinct suits, such as cups, swords, coins, and polo sticks, that would later influence European card designs.

The Mamluks of Egypt played a crucial role in transmitting playing cards to Europe. The Mamluk decks, dating to the 14th century, were highly decorative, featuring suits that corresponded to cups, coins, swords, and polo sticks. These suits are significant because they are the direct ancestors of the suits in European tarot decks. Mamluk cards were crafted with exquisite artistry, incorporating Islamic geometric patterns and calligraphy, as Islam prohibited figurative art.

Arrival in Europe

Playing cards arrived in Europe by the late 14th century, likely through trade routes in the Mediterranean or by returning Crusaders. The first European cards were closely modelled on the Mamluk decks, though with some regional modifications. In Italy and Spain, the suits of cups, coins, swords, and batons became standard. These suited cards were initially hand-painted luxury items commissioned by the nobility, making them rare and expensive.

As card production became more widespread with the advent of woodblock printing and later the printing press, playing cards became accessible to the middle and lower classes. Regional styles emerged: Italian and Spanish cards retained the Mamluk suits, while German card-makers created unique suits like hearts, bells, acorns, and leaves. By the 15th century, French card-makers had developed the suits we recognise today—hearts, diamonds, clubs, and spades—along with the standardised court cards of kings, queens, and knaves (later called jacks).

Playing Cards as Divination Tools

While initially used for gaming and gambling, the symbolic imagery of playing cards naturally lent itself to divinatory practices. The four suits came to represent aspects of life:

• Hearts: Emotions, relationships, and love
• Diamonds: Wealth, material success, and career
• Clubs: Work, creativity, and growth
• Spades: Challenges, loss, and endings

By the 15th and 16th centuries, playing cards were being used for fortune-telling across Europe. Their straightforward designs made them accessible for intuitive readings, while their portability ensured that cartomancy could spread widely. Folk traditions in countries like France, Italy, and Germany contributed to the development of systems where the numbers, suits, and court cards carried specific meanings.

A Foundation for Tarot

The introduction of playing cards to Europe paved the way for the creation of tarot decks, which expanded on the structure of standard playing cards by adding the Major Arcana—a series of 22 symbolic cards representing archetypes, spiritual principles, and cosmic forces. Tarot decks were initially created for gaming, like the tarocchi games popular in Italy, but their roots in the iconography of playing cards and the spiritual interpretations of their imagery ensured their place in the esoteric traditions that followed.

Playing cards, then, represent more than just a pastime; they are a cultural artefact that has adapted and evolved across centuries. From the royal courts of the Mamluks to the bustling cities of Renaissance Europe, their journey encapsulates a rich history of art, commerce, and mysticism, laying the groundwork for their role in divination and the development of tarot.

The Emergence and Origin of Tarot Cards

The tarot is a unique subset of playing cards that emerged during the Renaissance, blending the artistry of the time with symbolic imagery that would later be associated with mysticism and divination. Though today tarot is often viewed through an esoteric lens, its origins lie in gaming and cultural storytelling, only later taking on its spiritual and divinatory significance.

The Early Development of Tarot

The earliest known tarot cards appeared in 15th-century Italy, likely in the courtly cities of Milan, Ferrara, and Bologna. These decks, known as carte da trionfi (cards of triumphs), were created as an extension of standard playing cards, which by then had become widely popular across Europe. The triumphs, or trump cards, were added as a new suit, distinct from the existing four suits of swords, batons (or wands), cups, and coins.

The trionfi decks were commissioned by wealthy families, most famously the Visconti and Sforza families of Milan. The Visconti-Sforza Tarot, one of the earliest surviving examples, was lavishly illustrated and hand-painted with gold leaf. These decks were less about divination and more about celebrating wealth, artistry, and the intellectual pursuits of the Renaissance elite. The imagery of the trump cards drew heavily on allegorical themes popular in Renaissance art, literature, and philosophy, including depictions of virtues (such as Temperance, Justice, and Strength), cosmic elements (the Sun, Moon, and Star), and personifications of abstract concepts like Death and the Wheel of Fortune.

Tarot as a Game

The original purpose of tarot was as a card game, often referred to as tarocchi in Italy and tarot in France. This game, akin to modern bridge or euchre, used the trump cards to “triumph” over others in gameplay. The addition of the trump cards added complexity and strategy to traditional card games, making them a favourite among the European nobility.

The rules and structure of these games varied regionally, but they laid the groundwork for the 78-card tarot deck we know today. A standard tarot deck consisted of:

1. The Minor Arcana: Four suits (swords, batons/wands, cups, and coins/pentacles), each containing numbered cards (Ace through Ten) and court cards (King, Queen, Knight, and Page/Jack).
2. The Major Arcana: 22 trump cards, each with unique imagery and symbolic meaning, including cards like The Fool, The Magician, and The World.

The inclusion of The Fool, often unnumbered or assigned the value zero, marked a departure from traditional suits, symbolising a wildcard or an outsider in both gameplay and allegory.

Esoteric Interpretations and the Egyptian Connection

For centuries, tarot remained primarily a gaming tool, with no explicit link to mysticism or divination. This changed in the late 18th century when French occultists began to ascribe esoteric significance to the cards.

Antoine Court de Gébelin, a Protestant clergyman and amateur Egyptologist, was among the first to reinterpret tarot as a repository of ancient wisdom. In his 1781 work Le Monde Primitif, Court de Gébelin claimed that the tarot preserved the sacred teachings of ancient Egypt, specifically the mystical Book of Thoth. He argued that the tarot’s imagery contained allegorical and symbolic keys to universal truths, though his assertions were largely speculative and unsupported by historical evidence.

Jean-Baptiste Alliette, known as Etteilla, took these ideas further by developing the first tarot deck explicitly for divination. Etteilla’s deck reordered the traditional structure of the cards and added occult symbols, astrological associations, and alchemical references. He also wrote comprehensive guides for interpreting the cards, solidifying tarot’s role as a divinatory tool.

The Golden Dawn and the Tarot’s Esoteric Renaissance

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the tarot fully embraced by occult societies, particularly the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. This organisation developed a complex system of correspondences linking the tarot to astrology, the Kabbalistic Tree of Life, and the elements. Golden Dawn members, including Arthur Edward Waite and Aleister Crowley, played pivotal roles in shaping modern tarot.

Waite collaborated with artist Pamela Colman Smith to create the Rider-Waite-Smith Tarot in 1909. This deck was groundbreaking in its design: for the first time, all 78 cards featured detailed illustrations, allowing readers to intuitively interpret even the Minor Arcana. Waite’s deck became the foundation for most modern tarot traditions, particularly those focused on introspection and personal growth.

Crowley, on the other hand, approached tarot from a more mystical and ceremonial perspective. His Thoth Tarot, created with artist Lady Frieda Harris, reimagined the cards with rich symbolism drawn from alchemy, astrology, and Thelema.

Tarot as a Divinatory Tool

The shift from gaming to divination marked a profound transformation in the use of tarot. By the 20th century, tarot had become deeply intertwined with practices like fortune-telling, self-reflection, and spiritual exploration. Practitioners began to use tarot spreads—layouts of cards with specific positional meanings—to answer questions about the past, present, and future.

Each card, whether from the Major or Minor Arcana, came to represent archetypal energies or life situations. For example:

• The Fool symbolised new beginnings and boundless potential.
• The Magician represented willpower and mastery.
• The Tower warned of upheaval and destruction, while
• The Star offered hope and renewal.

Tarot in Contemporary Practice

Today, tarot decks are produced in an astonishing variety of styles and themes, reflecting everything from traditional spiritual paths to modern pop culture. The tarot has become not only a tool for divination but also a medium for storytelling, meditation, and artistic expression.

Although the idea of tarot as an ancient, mystical tradition is largely a product of 18th and 19th-century reinterpretations, its enduring appeal lies in its ability to adapt and resonate with each new era. From its Renaissance beginnings as a game of triumphs to its current role as a spiritual and psychological tool, the tarot remains a timeless reflection of the human journey.